Multigene phylogeny of South African Anopheles mosquitoes
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17159/2254-8854/2025/a20136Keywords:
COI, ITS2, 28S, Molecular Phylogeny, SystematicsAbstract
Mosquitoes substantially impact human and animal health as vectors of disease and consequently take a heavy toll on the economy. In order to effectively investigate the evolutionary history of vectors of disease and understand their associated biological tendencies, it is vital to correctly identify and classify the relevant species. Since phylogenetic studies on South African species are currently markedly underrepresented in the literature, the current study aimed to investigate the placement of South African Anopheles Meigen mosquito species within the genus’ extensive taxonomic framework based on the cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI), internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) and 28S ribosomal DNA sequences. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses were performed for each of the COI, ITS2 and 28S DNA datasets, as well as a concatenated analysis for all three DNA regions combined. Upon examination, several phylogenetic findings were corroborated by analyses based on multiple DNA regions. These findings supported the non-monophyly of several taxa relevant to the region (subgenus Anopheles, Laticorn Section, and the Funestus Group) and may indicate the non-monophyly of several South African species [An. coustani Laveran, An. tenebrosus Dönitz, An. parensis Gillies, An. funestus Giles and An. longipalpis C (Theobald) (Type C) (Koekemoer et al. 2009)]. The results reveal numerous challenges within the current systematic framework of the genus Anopheles and provide a novel focus on the phylogeny of South African taxa.
Downloads
References
Baker RH, DeSalle R. 1997. Multiple sources of character information and the phylogeny of Hawaiian drosophilids. Systematic Biology. 46(4):654–673. https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/46.4.654. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/46.4.654
Bargues MD, Latorre JM, Morchon R, Simon F, Escosa R, Aranda C, Sainz S, Fuentes MV, Mas-Coma S. 2006. rDNA sequences of Anopheles species from the Iberian Peninsula and an evaluation of the 18S rRNA gene as phylogenetic marker in Anophelinae. Journal of Medical Entomology. 43(3):508–517. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/43.3.508. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/43.3.508
Beebe NW. 2018. DNA barcoding mosquitoes: advice for potential prospectors. Parasitology. 145(5):622–633. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182018000343. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182018000343
Benson DA, Cavanaugh M, Clark K, Karsch-Mizrachi I, Lipman DJ, Ostell J, Sayers EW. 2012. GenBank. Nucleic Acids Research. 41(D1):D36–D42. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gks1195. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gks1195
Besansky NJ, Krzywinski J, Lehmann T, Simard F, Kern M, Mukabayire O, Fontenille D, Touré YT, Sagnon F. 2003. Semipermeable species boundaries between Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles arabiensis: evidence from multilocus DNA sequence variation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100:10818–10823. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1434337100. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1434337100
Besansky NJ, Powell JR, Caccone A, Hamm DM, Scott JA, Collins FH. 1994. Molecular phylogeny of the Anopheles gambiae complex suggests genetic introgression between principal malaria vectors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 91:6885–6888. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.91.15.6885. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.91.15.6885
Bofkin L, Goldman N. 2007. Variation in evolutionary processes at different codon positions. Molecular Biology and Evolution. 24:513–521. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msl178. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msl178
Bridge PD, Roberts PJ, Spooner BM, Panchal G. 2003. On the unreliability of published DNA sequences. New Phytologist. 160:43–48. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00861.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00861.x
Ciubotariu II, Jones CM, Kobayashi T, Bobanga T, Muleba M, Pringle JC, Stevenson JC, Carpi G, Norris DE. 2020. Genetic diversity of Anopheles coustani (Diptera: Culicidae) in malaria transmission foci in southern and central Africa. Journal of Medical Entomology. 57:1782–1792. https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjaa132. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjaa132
Coetzee M. 2020. Key to the females of Afrotropical Anopheles mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). Malaria Journal. 19:70. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-020-3144-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-020-3144-9
Coleman AW. 2003. ITS2 is a double-edged tool for eukaryote evolutionary comparisons. TRENDS in Genetics. 19:370–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9525(03)00118-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9525(03)00118-5
Collucci E, Sallum MAM. 2007. Cladistic analysis of the subgenus Anopheles (Anopheles) Meigen (Diptera: Culicidae) based on morphological characters. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 102:277–292. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0074-02762007005000026. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762007005000026
Dassanayake RS, Gunawardene YINS, De Silva BDDNK. 2008. ITS-2 secondary structures and phylogeny of Anopheles culicifacies species. Bioinformation. 2:456–460. https://doi.org/10.6026/97320630002456. DOI: https://doi.org/10.6026/97320630002456
Devulder G, de Montclos MP, Flandrois JP. 2005. A multigene approach to phylogenetic analysis using the genus Mycobacterium as a model. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 55:293–302. https://doi.org/10.1099/ijs.0.63222-0. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1099/ijs.0.63222-0
Djadid ND, Gholizadeh S, Tafsiri E, Romi R, Gordeev M, Zakeri S. 2007. Molecular identification of Palearctic members of Anopheles maculipennis in northern Iran. Malaria Journal. 6:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-6-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-6-6
Edwards FW. 1932. Fascicle 194. Diptera. Fam. Culicidae. In: Wytsman P (editor), Genera Insectorum. Brussels: Desmet-Verteneuil. pp 1–258.
Edwards FW. 1941. Mosquitoes of the Ethiopian region. III.-Culicine adults and pupae. London: British Museum (Natural History). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.96.2502.537. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.96.2502.537
Egan MG. 2006. Support versus corroboration. Journal of Biomedical Informatics. 39:72–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2005.11.007. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2005.11.007
Fang Y, Shi WQ, Zhang Y. 2017. Molecular phylogeny of Anopheles hyrcanus group members based on ITS2 rDNA. Parasites & Vectors. 10:417. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-017-2351-x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-017-2351-x
Folmer O, Black M, Hoeh W, Lutz R, Vrijenhoek R. 1994. DNA primers for amplification of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I from diverse metazoan invertebrates. Molecular Marine Biology and Biotechnology. 3:294–299.
Foster PG, de Oliveira TMP, Bergo ES, Conn JE, Sant’Ana DC, Nagaki SS, Nihei S, Lamas CE, González C, Moreira CC, Sallum MAM. 2017. Phylogeny of Anophelinae using mitochondrial protein coding genes. Royal Society Open Science. 4:170758. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.170758. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.170758
Friedrich M, Tautz D. 1997. Evolution and phylogeny of the Diptera: a molecular phylogenetic analysis using 28S rDNA sequences. Systematic Biology. 46:674–698. https://doi.org/10.2307/2413500. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/46.4.674
Garros C, Harbach RE, Manguin S. 2005. Morphological assessment and molecular phylogenetics of the Funestus and Minimus groups of Anopheles (Cellia). Journal of Medical Entomology. 42:522–536. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/42.4.522. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/42.4.522
Gholizadeh S, Djadid ND, Nouroozi B, Bekmohammadi M. 2013. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of Anopheles and Cellia subgenus anophelines (Diptera: Culicidae) in temperate and tropical regions of Iran. Acta Tropica. 126:63–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.11.003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.11.003
Gillies MT, Coetzee M. 1987. A supplement to the Anophelinae of Africa south of the Sahara. Publications of the South African Institute for Medical Research. 55:1–143.
Gillies MT, De Meillon B. 1968. The Anophelinae of Africa south of the Sahara (Ethiopian zoogeographical region). Publications of the South African Institute for Medical Research. 54:1–343.
Greni SE, Demari-Silva B, de Oliveira TMP, Suesdek L, Laporta GZ, Sallum MAM. 2018. A multi-gene analysis and potential spatial distribution of species of the Strodei subgroup of the genus Nyssorhynchus (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Medical Entomology. 55:1486–1495. https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjy137. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjy137
Harbach RE. 2007. The Culicidae (Diptera): a review of taxonomy, classification and phylogeny. Zootaxa. 1668:591–638. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1668.1.28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1668.1.28
Harbach, RE. 2023. Anopheles classification. Mosquito Taxonomic Inventory. Accessed on 9 March 2025. Retrieved from https://mosquito-taxonomic-inventory.myspecies.info/sites/mosquito-taxonomic-inventory.info/files/Anopheles%20classification_67.pdf.
Harbach RE, Kitching IJ. 2005. Reconsideration of anopheline mosquito phylogeny (Diptera: Culicidae: Anophelinae) based on morphological data. Systematics and Biodiversity. 3:345–374. https://doi.org/10.1017/s147720000500174x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S147720000500174X
Harbach RE, Kitching IJ. 2016. The phylogeny of Anophelinae revisited: inferences about the origin and classification of Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae). Zoologica Scripta. 45:34–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/zsc.12137. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/zsc.12137
Harbach RE, Kitching IJ, Culverwell CL, Dubois J, Linton YM. 2012. Phylogeny of mosquitoes of tribe Culicini (Diptera: Culicidae) based on morphological diversity. Zoologica Scripta. 41:499–514. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-6409.2012.00546.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-6409.2012.00546.x
Harris JK, Kelley ST, Pace NR. 2004. New perspective on uncultured bacterial phylogenetic division OP11. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 70:845–849. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.70.2.845-849.2004. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.70.2.845-849.2004
Hua YQ, Ding YR, Yan ZT, Si FL, Luo QC, Chen B. 2016. The complete mitochondrial genome of Anopheles minimus (Diptera: Culicidae) and the phylogenetics of known Anopheles mitogenomes. Insect Science. 23:353–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/1744-7917.12326. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1744-7917.12326
Huelsenbeck JP, Rannala B, Larget B. 2000. A Bayesian framework for the analysis of cospeciation. Evolution. 54:352–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00039.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00039.x
Huelsenbeck JP, Ronquist F. 2001. MRBAYES: Bayesian inference of phylogenetic trees. Bioinformatics. 17:754–755. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/17.8.754. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/17.8.754
Hurvich CM, Tsai CL. 1989. Regression and time series model selection in small samples. Biometrika. 76:297–307. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/76.2.297. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/76.2.297
Jiang ZF, Huang DW, Zhu CD, Zhen WQ. 2006. New insights into the phylogeny of fig pollinators using Bayesian analyses. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 38:306–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2005.11.008. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2005.11.008
Kamali M, Xia A, Tu Z, Sharakhov IV. 2012. A new chromosomal phylogeny supports the repeated origin of vectorial capacity in malaria mosquitoes of the Anopheles gambiae complex. PLoS Pathogens. 8:e1002960. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002960. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1002960
Karimian F, Oshaghi MA, Sedaghat MM, Waterhouse RM, Vatandoost H, Hanafi-Bojd AA, Ravasan NM, Chavshin AR. 2014. Phylogenetic analysis of the oriental-Palearctic-Afrotropical members of Anopheles (Culicidae: Diptera) based on nuclear rDNA and mitochondrial DNA characteristics. Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases. 67:361–367. https://doi.org/10.7883/yoken.67.361. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7883/yoken.67.361
Katoh K, Rozewicki J, Yamada KD. 2019. MAFFT online service: multiple sequence alignment, interactive sequence choice and visualization. Briefings in Bioinformatics. 20:1160–1166. https://doi.org/10.1093/bib/bbx108. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bib/bbx108
Koekemoer LL, Lochouarn L, Hunt RH, Coetzee M. 1999. Single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis for identification of four members of the Anopheles funestus (Diptera: Culicidae) group. Journal of Medical Entomology. 36:125–130. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/36.2.125. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jmedent/36.2.125
Koekemoer LL, Kamau L, Hunt RH, Coetzee M. 2002. A cocktail polymerase chain reaction assay to identify members of the Anopheles funestus (Diptera: Culicidae) group. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 66:804–811. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2002.66.804. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2002.66.804
Koekemoer LL, Misiani EA, Hunt RH, Kent RJ, Norris DE, Coetzee M. 2009. Cryptic species within Anopheles longipalpis from southern Africa and phylogenetic comparison with members of the An. funestus group. Bulletin of Entomological Research. 99:41–49. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007485308006123. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485308006123
Leaché AD, Reeder TW. 2002. Molecular systematics of the eastern fence lizard (Sceloporus undulatus): a comparison of parsimony, likelihood, and Bayesian approaches. Systematic Biology. 51:44–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/106351502753475871. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/106351502753475871
Marinucci M, Romi R, Mancini P, Luca MD, Severini C. 1999. Phylogenetic relationships of seven palearctic members of the maculipennis complex inferred from ITS2 sequence analysis. Insect Molecular Biology. 8:469–480. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2583.1999.00140.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2583.1999.00140.x
Meier R, Shiyang K, Vaidya G, Ng PKL. 2006. DNA barcoding and taxonomy in Diptera: a tale of high intraspecific variability and low identification success. Systematic Biology. 55:715–728. https://doi.org/10.1080/10635150600969864. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10635150600969864
Meigen JW. 1818. Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europäischen zweiflügeligen Insekten. Volume 1. Beaufort Sohn, Aachen. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.12464
Merget B, Koetschan C, Hackl T, Förster F, Dandekar T, Müller T, Schultz J, Wolf M. 2012. The ITS2 database. JoVE (Journal of Visualized Experiments) 61:e3806. https://doi.org/10.3791/3806. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3791/3806-v
Miller RE, McDonald JA, Manos PS. 2004. Systematics of Ipomoea subgenus Quamoclit (Convolvulaceae) based on ITS sequence data and a Bayesian phylogenetic analysis. American Journal of Botany. 91:1208–1218. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.91.8.1208. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.91.8.1208
Mitchell A, Mitter C, Regier JC. 2000. More taxa or more characters revisited: combining data from nuclear protein-encoding genes for phylogenetic analyses of Noctuoidea (Insecta: Lepidoptera). Systematic Biology. 49:202–224. https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/49.2.202. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/49.2.202
Mucina L, Rutherford MC. 2006. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Strelitzia 19. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.
National Center for Biotechnology Information. 2020. Accessed on 1 May 2020. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
Nilsson RH, Ryberg M, Kristiansson E, Abarenkov K, Larsson KH, Kõljalg U. 2006. Taxonomic reliability of DNA sequences in public sequence databases: a fungal perspective. PLoS One 1:e59. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000059. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000059
Norris LC, Norris DE. 2015. Phylogeny of anopheline (Diptera: Culicidae) species in southern Africa, based on nuclear and mitochondrial genes. Journal of Vector Ecology 40:16–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvec.12128. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jvec.12128
Otsuka Y. 2011. Variation in number and formation of repeat sequences in the rDNA ITS2 region of five sibling species in the Anopheles barbirostris complex in Thailand. Journal of Insect Science 11: 137. https://doi.org/10.1673/031.011.13701. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1673/031.011.13701
Pawlowski J, Szadziewski R, Kmieciak D, Fahrni J, Bittar G. 1996. Phylogeny of the infraorder Culicomorpha (Diptera: Nematocera) based on 28S RNA gene sequences. Systematic Entomology 21:167–178. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3113.1996.d01-5.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3113.1996.d01-5.x
Posada D. 2008. jModelTest: phylogenetic model averaging. Molecular Biology and Evolution 25:1253–1256. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msn083. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msn083
Puslednik L, Russell RC, Ballard JWO. 2012. Phylogeography of the medically important mosquito Aedes (Ochlerotatus) vigilax (Diptera: Culicidae) in Australasia. Journal of Biogeography 39:1333–1346. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2012.02683.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2012.02683.x
Quenouille B, Bermingham E, Planes S. 2004. Molecular systematics of the damselfishes (Teleostei: Pomacentridae): Bayesian phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 31:66–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1055-7903(03)00278-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00278-1
Ratnasingham S, Hebert PDN. 2007. BOLD: The Barcode of Life Data System (www.boldsystems.org). Molecular Ecology Notes 7: 355–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-8286.2007.01678.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-8286.2007.01678.x
Rattanarithikul R, Harrison BA, Harbach RE, Panthusiri P, Coleman RE. 2006. Illustrated keys to the mosquitoes of Thailand IV. Anopheles. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 37:1–128.
Reid JA, Knight KL. 1961. Classification within the subgenus Anopheles (Diptera, Culicidae). Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology 55: 474–488. https://doi.org/10.1080/00034983.1961.11686077. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00034983.1961.11686077
Reinert JF, Harbach RE, Kitching IJ. 2009. Phylogeny and classification of tribe Aedini (Diptera: Culicidae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 157:700–794. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00570.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00570.x
Sallum MAM, Schultz TR, Wilkerson RC. 2000. Phylogeny of Anophelinae (Diptera: Culicidae) based on morphological characters. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 93:745–775. https://doi.org/10.1603/0013-8746(2000)093[0745:poadcb]2.0.co;2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1603/0013-8746(2000)093[0745:POADCB]2.0.CO;2
Sallum MAM, Schultz TR, Foster PG, Aronstein K, Wirtz RA, Wilkerson RC. 2002. Phylogeny of Anophelinae (Diptera: Culicidae) based on nuclear ribosomal and mitochondrial DNA sequences. Systematic Entomology 27:361–382. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3113.2002.00182.x. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3113.2002.00182.x
Schuettpelz E, Pryer KM. 2007. Fern phylogeny inferred from 400 leptosporangiate species and three plastid genes. Taxon 56:1037–1050. https://doi.org/10.2307/25065903. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/25065903
Schwarz G. 1978. Estimating the dimension of a model. The Annals of Statistics 6:461–464. https://doi.org/10.1214/aos/1176344136. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1214/aos/1176344136
Seibel PN, Müller T, Dandekar T, Schultz J, Wolf M. 2006. 4SALE–a tool for synchronous RNA sequence and secondary structure alignment and editing. BMC Bioinformatics 7:498. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-7-498. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-7-498
Seibel PN, Müller T, Dandekar T, Wolf M. 2008. Synchronous visual analysis and editing of RNA sequence and secondary structure alignments using 4SALE. BMC Research Notes 1:91. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-0500-1-91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-0500-1-91
Sharp BL, Kleinschmidt I, Streat E, Maharaj R, Barnes KI, Durrheim DN, Ridl FC, Morris N, Seocharan I, Kunene S, La Grange JJ. 2007. Seven years of regional malaria control collaboration—Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 76:42–47. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2007.76.42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2007.76.42
Stamatakis A. 2014. rAxML version 8: a tool for phylogenetic analysis and post-analysis of large phylogenies. Bioinformatics 30:1312–1313. https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btu033. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bioinformatics/btu033
Sudia WD, Chamberlain RW. 1962. Battery-operated light trap, an improved model. Mosquito News 22:126–129.
Sung GH, Sung JM, Hywel-Jones NL, Spatafora JW. 2007. A multi-gene phylogeny of Clavicipitaceae (Ascomycota, Fungi): Identification of localized incongruence using a combinational bootstrap approach. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 44:1204–1223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2007.03.011. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2007.03.011
Swain S, Mohanty A, Tripathy HK, Mahapatra N, Kar SK, Hazra RK. 2010. Molecular identification and phylogeny of Myzomyia and Neocellia series of Anopheles subgenus Cellia (Diptera: Culicidae). Infection, Genetics and Evolution 10:931–939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2010.05.016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2010.05.016
Thorne JL, Kishino H, Painter IS. 1998. Estimating the rate of evolution of the rate of molecular evolution. Molecular Biology and Evolution 15:1647–1657. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025892. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025892
Valkiūnas G, Atkinson CT, Bensch S, Sehgal RN, Ricklefs RE. 2008. Parasite misidentifications in GenBank: how to minimize their number? Trends in Parasitology 24:247–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2008.03.004. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2008.03.004
Vinuesa P, Silva C, Lorite MJ, Izaguirre-Mayoral ML, Bedmar EJ, Martínez-Romero E. 2005. Molecular systematics of rhizobia based on maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenies inferred from rrs, atpD, recA and nifH sequences, and their use in the classification of Sesbania microsymbionts from Venezuelan wetlands. Systematic and Applied Microbiology. 28:702–716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.syapm.2005.05.007. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.syapm.2005.05.007
Wang G, Li C, Zheng W, Song F, Guo X, Wu Z, Luo P, Yang Y, He L, Zhao T. 2017. An evaluation of the suitability of COI and COII gene variation for reconstructing the phylogeny of, and identifying cryptic species in, anopheline mosquitoes (Diptera Culicidae). Mitochondrial DNA Part A. 28:769–777. https://doi.org/10.1080/24701394.2016.1186665. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/24701394.2016.1186665
Yan ZT, Fu WB, Chen B. 2019. Complete mitochondrial genomes of Anopheles aconitus and Anopheles splendidus and phylogenetics analysis of known mtgenomes in the subgenus Cellia (Diptera: Culicidae: Anophelinae). Mitochondrial DNA Part B. 4:1848–1850. https://doi.org/10.1080/23802359.2019.1613185. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23802359.2019.1613185
Downloads
Additional Files
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Liezl Whitehead, Dr. Vaughn R. Swart , Dr. Marieka Gryzenhout , Prof. Lizette L. Koekemoer
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
.png){kind=spacer}